Training Roles & Respo Essay Example for Free

Training Roles Respo Essay Assignment 1: Roles, Responsibilities and Relationships of effective trainers| The purpose of this assignment is to help you to provide evidence to satisfy the following outcomes and assessment criteria. LO 1. Understand own role and responsibilities in lifelong learningP 1.1 Summarise key aspects of legislation, regulatory requirements and codes of practice relating to own role and responsibilitiesP 1.2 Explain own responsibilities for equality and valuing diversityP 1.3 Explain own role and responsibilities in lifelong learningP 1.4 Explain own role and responsibilities in identifying and meeting the needs of learnersLO 2. Understand the relationships between teachers and other professionals in lifelong learningP 2.1 Explain the boundaries between the teaching role and other professional rolesP 2.2 Describe points of referral to meet the needs of learnersP 2.3 Summarise own responsibilities in relation to other professionals 3. Understand own responsibility for maintaining a safe and supportive learning environmentP 3.1 Explain own responsibilities in maintaining a safe and supportive learning environmentP 3.2 Explain ways to promote appropriate behaviour and respect for others| ScenarioYou have been asked by your supervisor to prepare an important part of the handbook for new teachers in your department. Your tasks are to outline the roles, responsibilities and relationships of teachers teaching your subject.| Task 1: Prepare a list of legislation, regulatory requirements and codes of practice relevant to your role and responsibilities with the key aspects of each summarised. (P1.1)Task 2: Explain what equality and diversity mean, along with examples of your responsibilities towards meeting them. (P1.2)Task 3: Explain the roles and responsibilities of a teacher in the Lifelong Learning Sector and provide your job description and curriculum vitae.(P1.3)Task 4: Create a list of needs which your students might have. An explanation of how you will identify and meet these needs, based on your roles and responsibilities as a teacher.(P1.4)| Task 5: Compile a list of boundaries that a teacher might encounter. An explanation of what these boundaries are and how they relate to the teaching role and other professionals.(P2.1)Task 6: Make a list of potential needs of students. A description of relevant points of referral and support systems available such as people, agencies, organisations, websites etc. (P2.2)Task 7: List the teaching responsibilities and summarise these responsibilities in relation to other professionals.(P2.3)| Task 8: Explain your own responsibilities towards maintaining a safe and supportive learning environment. Use your job description, relevant organisation policies and procedures to support your answer. Cross reference this to Roles, responsibilities and relationships in lifelong learning 1.1 and 1.4.(P3.1)Task 9: Explanation of ways to promote appropriate behaviour and respect for others.(P3.2)| Sources of information: Use the notes provide, your own research, job description, rules and regulations of your institute and national and international legislations, rules and regulations.| This brief has been verified as being fit for purpose.

Pros and cons of Marijuana legalization

Pros and cons of Marijuana legalization Who would have thought that one green plant, Cannabis sativa, could create so much controversy throughout the centuries? The debate on medical marijuana has been around since the 17th and 18th century. The debate if marijuana is a dangerous and addictive drug, or a helpful medication for pain reliever, preventing vomiting, and treatment of glaucoma (Schwartz, 1994).Science has proven the medical benefits marijuana brings to the field of medicine. Although the American justice system is still undecided about the facts and safety of marijuana, and if marijuana should be legalized, some states have accepted the legalization of marijuana such as California. Many other states are still debating the pros and cons of marijuanas legalization. If marijuana was legalized and regulated it could save lives, help our economy grow in this economic downturn, and let our national security system attend to more alarming issues. Allegar, I. (2000). A factual guide to medical uses of marijuana. Townsend Letter for Doctors Patients Dec2000, (209), 121. This is the only book that presents many of the scientific facts about medical marijuana. Facts such as the origin of where marijuana plants came from, to facts about President Regans term, where the war on drugs began which gave marijuana a bad reputation. My favorite line from this article sums up why marijuana should be legalized. A primary fact is the proven safety of this plant- no one has ever died, overdosed, or even become ill from using marijuana. So how did this green leaf plant get such a bad reputation?(Allegar, 2000, p.209) This quote presents a great argument for the legalization of marijuana. Other drugs cause people to overdose and die, yet those drugs are legalized. So what is the problem with legalization of marijuana? Arias, d. (2007). Health findings. Nations Health, 37(3), 16. This article talks about many public health findings of medical marijuana. The discovery that marijuana relieves pain for patients that suffer from peripheral neuropathy, a nerve condition that is present in those affected with HIV (Arias, 2007). The marijuana relieved pain by 34%.Another amazing statistic is that the patients suffering from peripheral neuropathy reduced their chronic pain by 72% when smoking their first marijuana cigarette (Arias, 2007, 16). The placebo cigarette was not even comparable. This article presents good documentation of public health findings on marijuana. The procedure is organized well and easy to understand the benefits that marijuana presents in the experiment. In the research collected, this article makes the strongest point of how effective marijuana is as a pain reliever. With such high statics how can our government not legalize marijuana? Boire, R, Feeney, K. (2006). Medical marijuana law. Oakland, CA: Ronin Publishing Inc The book covers every question to what marijuana is, to why it is legal in some states. Also the book explains how the state law and federal law are two different things, and the federal law always wins. This book also brings a more in-depth explanation on marijuana history and the medical benefits. The book talked about two different alternatives to smoking marijuana such as Marinol and sativex. The pros and cons are listed for each drug. The book also explained the procedure of seeing a doctor and getting registration for the marijuana, where a safe place is to get the marijuana, and what the regulations are for growing your own marijuana plants. The book explains how to deal with the federal system and possession of marijuana. The book lists the amount of marijuana that is legal for each state. Boire and Fenney gave more information on the marijuana tax act of 1937. This book also makes the clear distinction on the federal law vs. state law. The most useful information I found in the book was the description on the qualifying conditions for medical marijuana, which are: AIDS, cancer, cachexia, epilepsy, glaucoma, HIV, multiple sclerosis, seizures, and severe nausea (Boire, Fenny, 2006, p.5).Another great part of the book is about the doctors role in prescribing the marijuana. Some states require a copy of the doctors license and signed physician statement (Boire, Feeney, 2006).The different forms of medical marijuana makes a great argument on why it should be legalize. Marinol, which contains synthetic THC, is a better option than smoking marijuana because, smoking is harmful. The down fall with the synthetic THC, is it does not produce the same pain relieving effect (Boire, Feeney, 2006). The book also talks about the patients rights and restrictions about medical mariju ana. This information helped me better understand both sides of the debate. Durand, M. (2007). Considering cannabis. Inside MS Jun/Jul2007, 25(3), 56-57. The article deals with the medical affects that Cannabis (marijuana) has on patients with multiple sclerosis. The marijuana helps prevent vomiting and muscle spasm. Experiments were done on rats to prove the medical benefit of marijuana. Some of the reverse side effects of marijuana are also listed. This article helps back up my thesis with the proof of medical facts to legalize marijuana. The drug is helpful with patients who suffer from multiple sclerosis. With dosage controlled and overseen by a physician I feel there is no reason to have these patients suffer and not be able to have marijuana. Garner-Wizard, M. (2006). FDA denies medicinal value of smoked marijuana. . HerbalGram Sep-Dec2006, 25(72), 22. This article is very interesting; because attention is brought to what party the U.S. government or medical system is lying. The FDA (Food and Drug Administration) says that there is no medical proof of medical marijuana. The FDA also argues that no science experiment on animals has been conducted and documented. The medical system talks about the lack of faith they have with the FDA. Medical experts do not believe that it is a communication error between the science departments and government officials, rather than the government does not want to accept the medical facts and legalize marijuana. The government wants to keep a strong stand on drugs. This article is perfect for playing devils advocate on the debate of medical marijuana. Medical experts have the facts and experiments in books and other science journal researched in this paper. So if the public can receive these written documents why is the government unable to? This article also presents the question of what is the true motivatation of not legalizing marijuana. What else is the government keeping from us? Krisberg, k. (2009). Fight for reform of U.S. drug policies slowly Making headway. [cover story]. Nations Health, 39(8), 1-10. Krisberg has presented facts and many view points from different medical experts. The reading is hard to understand what party believes what. The main concept retained from this reading is the president Barack Obama says he has the willingness to put science before policies (Krisberg, 2009, p.7) Meaning he would put opinions and policies aside and make a decision based on facts. While this article was difficlulent to understand and follow, the article is somewhat humorous. The president suggests he will move the legalization of medical marijuana if facts are presented. This entire annotated bibliography is filled of sources with many facts on the benefits of marijuana. So what is the hold up? Why has marijuana only been legalized in some states, and even then the federal law has many regulation and restrictions. What kind of facts are the government looking for. How can the American society observe the medical benefits of medical marijuana, but our public officials cannot? This creates a great viewpoint to think about while researching. Marandino, c. (1998). Fired up. Vegetarian Times, (247), 18. This article is a little old but still presents a great point. The National Institutes of Health (NIH) recommend that marijuana does present some medical benefits for serious illnesses. The American Medical Association also agreed that marijuana had some medical benefits. The public views are also document about the legalization of marijuana. This article prevents proof that medical research has been conducted and presented to the public. This article was written in 1998, and even though medical facts have been presented for medical marijuana many still opposed the idea of legalization. Marijuana has been viewed as a dangerous drug for centuries. No matter how many statics and facts are presented on why marijuana should be legalized for medical purposes, can change the mind of the American justice system. Marijuana. (2007). Marijuana fast facts, 1-2. This article presented some common background information. Because this was the first article researched, on the quest to understand the legalization of medical marijuana it was very helpful. To understanding the scientific name of the drug, to understanding the positive and negative aspects of marijuana, this article was very helpful. After reading this article and gaining some background knowledge, the more in-depth and complicated articles were easier to follow. Some of the information about the problem facing federal and state laws conflicting the legalization of medical marijuana. Also the information about marijuana being a risk and side effects that come with the drug will be helpful in presenting both sides of the debate. Marijuana and future psychosis. (2007). Nutrition Health Review: The Consumers Medical Journal , (98), 17. This article argues against the legalization of medical marijuana. All of the information in the article is about the life long lasting side effects of marijuana. How the use of marijuana can lead to psychosis and severe mood changes. There are two view points to very argument. While there is not sufficient medical evidence shown in this document to oppose the legalization of marijuana, this side still must be presented. The main reason for this view point is because of the side effects of marijuana. Like any other drug, marijuana has side effects. Some side effects are more harmful than those of marijuana, yet they are still legal. Minamide, E. (2007). Medical marijuana. Framington Hills, MI: Greenhaven Press. Minamide organized his text to show both sides of the legalization of marijuana debate. Some of the key topics are if medical marijuana is effective medical treatment or not. If the legalization of medical marijuana would negatively impact society or not, and finally if the federal government should ban medical marijuana or not. Debra J. Saunders argues that marijuana should be legalized because it can help many serious illnesses. Saunders believes that congress should move marijuana out of the classification of Schedule I drug, a caterogory that includes more serious drugs like heroine, to a Schedule II drug , like cocaine and morphine, which are available for medical use(Minamide,2007,p.12). Medical experts have facts that prove marijuana as a helpful medicine. Experts in medicane also believe the drug should be moved into the Schedule II drug. On the opposing viewpoints the book highlights a key point that harm of medical marijuana may outweigh the medical benefits (Minamide, 2007, p.34). Smoking in itself is harmful to the respiratory system regardless if it relieves pain and prevents nausea. Another great point highlighted in the book is if the legalization would negatively impact society. Mark R.Trouville says that the legalization of marijuana would interfere with the undermine law enforcement efforts to combat drug trafficking and would send a dangerous message that marijuana is a harmless substance (Minamide, 2007, p.38). The book also plays devil advocate and presents arguments for the legalization of marijuana that help my thesis out. Schwartz, H. (1994). Psychiatric practice under fire the influence of government, the media, and special interest on somatic therapies. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric press, Inc. The book gave facts on medical marijuana and the battle it has been facing for years. The book was written in the 1994 so the legal status was not up to date. Although, the history of marijuana and the medical benefits it had was very informational. The book also broke down the main ingredient in marijuana, and describes how they had medical benefits. A lot of case experiments proved medical marijuana helped the patient. The book also talked about the historic time line of marijuana. From the beginning of time when marijuana came from India in the 17th and 18th century, to Marijuana Tax Act of 1937 all the way to 1942 when American framers started to grow hemp for rope in World War II. The helpful information presented in this book had some general background information of marijuana. The author talked about THC (delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol) is the main ingredient of marijuana. In 1895 THC was approved by the Food and Drug administration (FDA). The FDA noted that THC was combating nausea and vomiting associated with cancer chemotherapy.(Schwartz, 1994, p.106) The book also noted three main reasons why medical marijuana should be legalized. The first of the three reasons is to treat glaucoma. The next main reason was to relieve nausea, and last but not least is to stimulate appetite. I think that congress should look at all of the medical facts about medical marijuana and how it relieves pain for cancer patients and also prevents vomiting. In todays medical world there are a lot of addictive drugs used as pain relievers. Yet these drugs are legalized. The legalization of medical marijuana could help our economy grow. The last piece of information presented in this book was a great example of why marijuana should be legalized. In August 1992, for example, Valarie Corral, a 40-year-old woman from Santa Cruz, California, who smoked marijuana for 18 years to control epileptic seizures, was arrested for growing five plants in a vegetable garden near her porch (Rogers 1993).Under California Law, she faced up to 3 years for her offense. Valarie did not get sentenced 3 years for her plants; the judge understood her medical purpose for them. Valaries doctor reported her prescription for medical marijuana to help with her spastic muscles when she had seizures. Before her muscles were out of control and she complained of pain. Once she started smoking marijuana when she felt a seizure coming along, her seizures were not as intense or long. This is just one example of how medical marijuana has positively impacted a life. Now Valarie can drive a car and perform day to day tasks thanks to help of marijuana she can live her life.

Challenging The Validity Of Fingerprint Evidence

Challenging The Validity Of Fingerprint Evidence The reliability of fingerprint evidence as a means of identification for purpose of court continues to be generally accepted by academia and the criminal justice system. However, despite a long tradition of forensic identification to individualize prints there have been some recent challenges as to the scientific basis for fingerprint evidence. These challenges stem from valid concerns about the potential for human errors in fingerprint matching. A major factor in trying to establish the validity of fingerprint evidence is the theoretical framework as to the physical aspects of forensic science. The psychological aspect of forensic science (the preparation of physical evidence for purpose of court) is also a potential Achilles heel as to the validity of fingerprint evidence in particular in countries with an adversarial legal system where the function of counsel is largely to undermine the credibility of the evidence presented. Key words: prints, marks, reliability, validity, probability, error, bias Introduction A [finger]print is a record taken by police of a (usually) known individual under controlled conditions. A mark is an impression found at a crime scene. The role of fingerprint examiners (dactyloscopists) is to analyse marks (individualize marks) to determine whether it/they match the print/s of a known individual. Fingerprints are routinely used by police in order to identify suspects and victims of crime (e.g. homicide) and fingerprint evidence remain one of the most trusted forms of forensic evidence used in a court of law. Despite this, the various techniques used by fingerprint examiners have neither been scientifically tested nor published in scientific peer reviewed journals. The reliability of dactyloscopy techniques as a means of identification (individualization) is based on a theoretical framework as to the physical aspects of forensic science, including: persistence, uniqueness and transferability of prints and marks for purpose of identification. Until recently there had been no scientific studies conducted to validate fingerprints as physical evidence of identification. Despite this significant gap in the science of fingerprint evidence, the evidential value of fingerprint identification remains unquestioned. The reliability of dactyloscopy techniques as a means of identification continues to be generally accepted by academia and the criminal justice system. However, the use of fingerprint identification as evidence at court inevitably leads to interactions between science and the law where basic assumptions are frequently challenged. There are two different kinds of issues which may arise when presenting fingerprints as evidence at court: (i) the lack of scientific rigour in the techniques used, and; (ii) the influence of cognitive biases on expert evidence. The evidential value of fingerprint identification Fingerprint identification as its used in the criminal justice system is typically done by comparing and attempting to match a mark (latent fingerprint) found at a crime scene with a print taken from a known suspect. The various techniques used by fingerprint examiners in matching two prints are different from e.g. biometric fingerprint checks introduced by the UK Border Agency (UKBA) in 2009 as a means of identification to improve on airport security. The lack of scientific rigour in the techniques used Whilst the evidential value of fingerprint identification remains unquestioned, even by its critics, it is often assumed that its the theoretical framework as to the physical aspects of fingerprint evidence, such as the uniqueness and transferability of fingerprints, which make fingerprint identification well suited as forensic evidence for purpose of court. However, these theoretical underpinnings are often not backed up by scientific evidence and the validity of the theoretical framework of forensic science is therefore a potential Achilles heel in fingerprint evidence. The influence of cognitive biases on expert evidence Whilst the different techniques and methods used by fingerprint examiners vary from those used in automated biometric fingerprint checks, the theoretical underpinnings of fingerprint identification are the same as for biometric fingerprint checks (such as uniqueness and transferability). The results from automated biometric fingerprint checks would not however be suitable as forensic evidence at court. The main reason is that apart from the physical aspects of fingerprints, the evidential value of fingerprints is primarily based upon the expert opinions of fingerprint examiners and governed by the rules on circumstantial evidence. Highlighting the lack of objectivity in the analysis and matching of fingerprints, Stoney (1991:198) notes: In fingerprint work we become subjectively convinced of identity; we do not prove it. And this works just fine. For fingerprints. The evidential value and admissibility of fingerprint expert evidence The Law Commissions report on admissibility of evidence 2008 and 2011: The opinion evidence of an expert witness is admissible only if the court is satisfied that it is sufficiently reliable to be admitted. The opinion evidence of an expert witness is sufficiently reliable to be admitted if: the evidence is predicated on sound principles, techniques and assumptions; those principles, techniques and assumptions have been properly applied to the facts of the case; and the evidence is supported by those principles, techniques and assumptions as applied to the facts of the case. It is for the party wishing to rely on the opinion evidence of an expert witness to show that it is sufficiently reliable to be admitted. This means that guilt cannot be determined by expert evidence alone and that trust in the validity of fingerprint evidence requires a leap of faith. (Broeder, 2006, p. 154) Challenging the Validity of Fingerprint Evidence The validity of fingerprint evidence is dependent upon: the credibility of expert witnesses; validity of the theoretical framework of forensic science, and; the accuracy of procedures and techniques used. Despite its lack of scientific evidence, the theoretical underpinnings of fingerprints and reliability of methods used are rarely challenged at court. When the theoretical underpinnings of fingerprints are challenged at court, it also tends to undermine the reliability of methods used in a range of forensic evidence. In Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc., the US Supreme Court ruled that forensic evidence has to be both relevant and reliable in order to be valid. However, there are no reliability studies for fingerprint evidence and fingerprint evidence should therefore be ruled inadmissible in a US court of law. Pierce (2011) notes that the core issue in Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc. was the validity of deductive reasoning to reach a conclusion. (Pierce, 2011) The validity of fingerprint evidence in effect comes down to an issue of trust and credibility both of which can be undermined. The Daubert case raised the need for a model by which statistically quantifiable measures can be generated to objectively assess the reliability of fingerprint evidence. One method considered reliable by US courts is the ACE-V (analysis-comparison-evaluation-verification) method. (Haber Haber, 2008) Despite the promise of such models, Broeder (2007) argues that: No expert or expert system can provide incontrovertible categorical evidence i.e. absolute proof that a certain trace originates from a particular source. There is no objective or subjective, scientific or alternative method that will enable us to do this. Stoney (1991:198) argues that trying to prove uniqueness by use of statistical models is a ridiculous notion. (Stoney, 1991) Basis for Challenging Fingerprint Evidence Despite significant issues in terms of the validity of both theoretical underpinnings of forensic science and various techniques used, the main reason why fingerprint evidence will continue to be challenged as valid forensic science evidence is that fingerprint matching (recognition, analysis, comparison, and interpretation / evaluation) is ultimately a subjective decision-making process where results and expert evidence can be influenced by contextual and confirmation biases (human error) resulting in false identification. Whilst Stoney (1991) appears to argue that its the subjective nature of fingerprint evidence which give the individualization process credibility, Dror et. al. (2005:800) also note that fingerprint identification involves a decision making process (Dror, et al., 2005) which may ultimately result in human error and in false identification. It is therefore unfortunate that much of the debate is currently focused on attempts to improve on the reliability of fingerprint evidence through advancements in technological innovation. Attempts at improving the physical aspects of scientific evidence indicate that some problems with forensic evidence might one day be overcome by future advances in technological innovation. Whilst technical and scientific evidence are becoming increasingly important for the criminal justice system, Broeder (2006:148) suggests that its difficult for judges and juries to assess the validity of expert forensic evidence. (Broeder, 2006, p. 148) Mnookin (2008:343) argues that the courts have been seduced by superficial arguments as to the reliability of scientific methods. (Mnookin, 2008, p. 343) Considering that fingerprint evidence is ultimately a decision-making process its difficult to see how fingerprint matching could be replaced by advances in technology such as future generations of automatic fingerprint recognition systems (e.g. the ACE-V process/methodology). More effort should perhaps be focused on the social science aspect of expert forensic evidence (in particular psychology) to reduce potential cognitive biases and human error in fingerprint evidence the main basis for challenging fingerprint evidence. Cognitive Biases in Fingerprint Evidence Fingerprint evidence is supported by a general theoretical framework as to the physical principles of forensic evidence. However, fingerprint evidence is ultimately based on a series of decisions formulated by fingerprint examiners through cognitive processes. Whilst Stoney (1991) might argue that becoming subjectively convinced of identity works just fine for purpose of fingerprint matching, as it turns out, fingerprint examiners are highly susceptible to various forms of cognitive biases. Giannelli (2010) describes four different kinds of cognitive biases which may influence decision-making in forensic examination of evidence. Giannelli describes contextual bias as occurring when extraneous information influences a decision, typically in cases of ambiguity. Techniques used to avoid the influence of contextual bias when testing a new drug, include randomized (double blind) clinical trials. A similar process as part of the fingerprint verification process has been proposed by Haber and Haber (2003). (Haber Haber, 2003) Giannelli describes confirmation bias in terms of the tendency to test a hypothesis by looking for instances that confirm it rather than by searching for potentially falsifying instances. Kassin, Dror Kukucka (2013) describe the various contextual influences which may generate bias in forensic evidence, in terms of: Knowing the nature and details of the crime, being pressured by detectives; working within and as part of the police; the use of computer-generated lists that feature some suspects ahead of others; appearing in court within an adversarial criminal justice system. Experiments in cognitive biases The importance of cognitive psychology of expert evidence has been highlighted in a series of experiments conducted by Dr. Itiel Dror (2005) in which he had took the fingerprints from real criminal cases and presented them to the same fingerprint examiners who had previously given evidence at court. By changing the context for the analysis, such as strongly suggesting that a mark had previously been incorrectly matched to a print (or that a mark belonged to a particular suspect when in fact it did not), the examiners came to different conclusions, contradicting their own evidence given at court. Dr. Drors experiments showed the influence that contextual and confirmation biases can have on the outcome of fingerprint analysis. The research found that fingerprint examiners were more likely to make a match judgment on ambiguous fingerprints when exposed to emotional background stories of crimes and explicitly disturbing photographs from crime scenes, as well as subliminal messages. The researchers concluded that examiners were more likely to confirm a match in ambiguous fingerprints when exposed to contextual biases highlighting the importance of cognitive psychology in fingerprint evidence. To further highlight the importance of cognitive psychology in fingerprint evidence, an international panel of fingerprint experts convened to examine errors committed by the FBI which led to the identification of Brandon Mayfield note that the pressure of working on a high-profile terrorism case created an atmosphere which contributed to the misidentification. (US Department of Justice, 2006, p. 177) Error Rates and Probability Error Rates Experiments similar to those conducted by Dr. Dror (2005) have also been conducted by e.g. Ulery et. al. (2012) and Evett and Williams (1995). (Evett Williams, 1995) All such studies find varying degrees of inconsistency. Ulery et. al. found that when the same fingerprint evidence is given to the same examiners, they reach different conclusions approximately 10% of the time. (Kassin, et al., 2013) Ulery et. al. (2012:9) attributed such errors to a lack of quantitative criteria and limited qualitative criteria for decision. (Ulery, et al., 2012, p. 9) Such error rates are only known as a result of research conducted where examiners were themselves the subject of research experiments. Mnookin (2008b) (Mnookin, 2008) as well as (Haber Haber, 2003) and other researchers point to the lack of transparency of crime laboratories in disclosing the results double-blind tests where e.g. one examiner discover an error made by another examiner and that no data exist on the error rate correction resulting from the verification process. Jasanoff (2006) notes the right of US citizens to receive information, including scientific and technical information, in order to effectuate the goal of informed participation. (Jasanoff, 2006) However, considering the increasingly commercial nature of forensic laboratories, such error rate data is unlikely to be volunteered any time soon. Probability Aitken Taroni (2004:126) note that evaluation of fingerprint evidence is based on a statistical model of probabilistic inference. (Aitken Taroni, 2004) Probability may be defined as [a] statistical means of describing uncertainty. (Brenner, 1997, p. 126) Galton (1892:100) raised the problem of estimating the probability of two prints (alike in their minutiae) as having been made by two different persons and attempted to give an approximate numerical idea of the value of finger prints as a means of Personal Identification. Galton (1892:110) calculated the probability of two different individuals having the same fingerprints (Type I error) to be less than 1 to 224 x 24 x 28 or about 1 in 64 billion. Neumann (2012:21) explains the difficulty of probability as faced by fingerprint examiners giving evidence at court: If it is his belief that the mark probably does or almost certainly does or is rather unlikely to match, he is forbidden to say so in court; in those cases, fingerprint evidence, for or against the accused, simply does not appear in the case. (Neumann, 2012) So, how common is it that examiners giving evidence at court arent necessarily 100% certain of the evidence they give at court? According to research by Neuman et.al. it happens in 30% of the all comparisons performed. (Neumann, et al., 2011) Galton notes the effect on probability when matching two or more marks to the prints of a known individual: When two fingers of each of the two persons are compared, and found to have the same minutiae, the improbability of 1 to 236 becomes squared, and reaches a figure altogether beyond the range of the imagination; when three fingers, it is cubed, and so on. [W]hen two, three, or more fingers in the two persons agree to that extent, the strength of the evidence rises by squares, cubes, etc., far above the level of that amount of probability which begins to rank as certainty. Galton (1892:111-112) Case Studies Broeder (2006) notes that there have recently been several highly publicised appeals against criminal convictions around the world where forensic evidence has played a significant role in the identification of suspects. Broeder further notes that these have at least partly been associated with inadequate standards of forensic expertise. The following case studies involve examples of Type I errors (false positives in fingerprint matching) made by examiners. Case Study 1: Shirley McKie In January 1997, DC Shirley McKie attended a crime scene in Kilmarnock, Scotland as part of an investigation into the murder of Marion Ross. A single mark found at the scene was attributed to DC McKie who denied under oath that it could be hers. DC McKie was subsequently charged with perjury. At her trial, two fingerprint experts disputed the mark belonged to DC McKie. A jury later found DC McKie not guilty of perjury. In 2008, the Scottish Government appointed Sir Anthony Campbell to hold a public inquiry into the identification and verification of fingerprints associated with the case of HM Advocate v McKie in 1999. Sir Campbell noted that [t]he community of fingerprint experts is deeply divided over the case of Shirley McKie and that some experts are perceived by others to be so closely associated with colleagues or organisations that have expressed an opinion that they are not universally regarded as being independent. (The Fingerprint Inquiry, 2011) Case Study 2: Brandon Mayfield In 2004, the Federal Bureau of Investigation identified Brandon Mayfields fingerprints as a match to a single mark found on a bag containing explosives used in the Madrid train bombings on 11 March 2004. Mayfields fingerprints had been initially retrieved as a potential match using the FBIs Integrated Automated Fingerprint Identification System (IAFIS). Upon closer examination, three fingerprint experts reviewing the initial result each confirmed that the mark belonged to Mayfield. (Stacey, 2004) The FBI launched a covert operation and Mayfield was subsequently arrested on 6 May 2004. An independent fingerprint expert appointed by the court to review the evidence (who also knew that a positive match had already been made) also concluded that the mark found did belong to Mayfield. Spanish Police informed the FBI that they had identified the mark as belonging to an Algerian national. After examining the prints of the Algerian national, the FBI released Mayfield from custody. The Office of the Inspector General (OIG) concluded that the reason for the misidentification was due to the unusual similarity between the [latent print] and Mayfields known fingerprint which had confused three experienced FBI examiners and a court-appointed expert. (US Department of Justice, 2006) Discussion Fingerprint evidence was first used in the UK in 1858 and is the most common form of forensic evidence used at court today. Fingerprint evidence has also been raised as one of the most important categories of forensic evidence admitted at court. However, a study conducted by Baldwin and McConville (1980) found that forensic evidence played a significant role in only five per cent of cases presented at court. Inman and Rudin (2002:1) describe forensic science as an applied science based on the laws of physics and chemistry. (Inman Rudin, 2002) Whilst this might provide an appropriate definition of forensic science, it ignores the importance of psychology in forensic evidence. The reliability of fingerprints as a means of identification (individualization) for purpose of evidence at court continues to be generally accepted by academia and the criminal justice system. Mnookin (2001:16) argues that scrutiny of expert evidence does not take place in a cultural vacuum and infers that fingerprint evidence was accepted too quickly in US courts. In 2013, a US District Court Judge ruled that the process fingerprint identification failed to meet three of the four criteria set for scientific evidence. The technique hadnt been scientifically tested Wasnt subject to scientific peer review Didnt possess a known rate of error The ruling means that whilst the court accepts that the process of fingerprint analysis does not meet the standards set for scientific evidence, the testimony of expert fingerprint analysts may still be admissible as evidence at court. Because the validity of fingerprint evidence is primarily based upon the credibility expert witnesses, challenges as to the validity of fingerprint evidence need to address the psychological aspects of forensic science, in other words the potential cognitive (contextual and confirmation) biases of forensic experts resulting in false identification. Part of this effort might involve simple solutions such as shielding fingerprint examiners from the details of crimes being investigated or having all fingerprint experts directly appointed by the courts. Other requirements might involve a minimum of two marks or more having to match the prints of a suspect before it can be used as evidence at court.

The Importance of Symbolism in The Glass Menagerie Essay -- Glass Mena

The Importance of Symbolism in The Glass Menagerie  Ã‚      Tom Wingfield is the narrator and a major character in Tennessee William’s timeless play, The Glass Menagerie. Through the eyes of Tom, the viewer gets a glance into the life of his family in the pre-war depression era; his mother, a Southern belle desperately clinging to the past; his sister, a woman too fragile to function in society; and himself, a struggling, young poet working at a warehouse to pay the bills. Williams has managed to create a momentous play using a combination of different elements, including symbolism. Three noteworthy examples of symbolism are the fire escape, a sense of hope and an escape both to the outside world and from it; the glass menagerie itself, a symbol for Laura’s fragility and uniqueness; and rainbows, symbols of unrealized hopes and aspirations. Through the use of these symbols, a greater understanding of the humanistic theme that unfulfilled hopes and desires are an unwanted, but important aspect of the real world is achieved, and The Glass Menagerie is crafted into a meaningful classic drama.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Symbols are a major part of this play that Tom, who is a poet, admits he has a weakness for. One of the first to be presented in the story is the fire escape that ... ...Masterplots, ed. Frank M. Magill. Revised Second Ed. Vol. 5. Pasadena: Salem Press, 1996. Bigsby, C. W. E. â€Å"Entering the Glass Menagerie.† The Cambridge Companion to Tennessee Williams, ed. Matthew C. Roudane. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997. Scheye, Thomas E. â€Å"The Glass Menagerie: ‘It’s not tragedy, Freckles.’.† Tennessee Williams: A Tribute, ed. Jac Tharpe. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1977. Williams, Tennessee. Conversations with Tennessee Williams, ed. Albert Devlin. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1986. Williams, Tennessee. The Glass Menagerie. New York: New Directions Publishing, 1945.

Aiding Education Essays -- Essays Papers

Aiding Education A look at what the U.S. must do to improve education for the poor. Introduction The public educational system in the United States is in desperate need of rejuvenation. The US’s standards are not up to par with other industrialized nations and because of this children don’t learn the fundamental skills required to become productive members of society. This trend is especially noticeable in areas of high poverty where schools do not have access to adequate resources to provide help for students that need it. Both the federal government and the states themselves have taken measures to right the course of the American educational system, but thus far the gains have been meager at best. In examining the current state of the United States’ educational system with respect to areas of significant poverty, it is important to determine what caused this country’s system to decay to such a dangerous levels, what is currently being done to correct the situation, and what more needs to be done in the future. How the states are helping fix the problem Annual test results like those from a recent MCAS exam (Massachusetts Comprehensive Assessment System) confirm what most of us already believe to be true: the communities with the lowest test scores are those with the highest levels of poverty. The strong correlation between poverty and poor academic performance has been evident to those in education for some time. The fact that it lingers and is in fact worsening in many areas begs the question: what are states doing to reverse this trend? (Brown) Because of the dire need for change with regards to education, state and federal policy makers alike have become increasingly focused on generating acceptable... ...r states to continue adjusting their funding methods and for the federal government to start living up to its promises. Bibliography Berliner, David. Vouchers: No Solution to Educating the Poor. http://www.asu.edu/educ/epsl/EPRU/point_of_view_essays/cerai-00-37a.htm Feb 22, 2002. Brown, Eileen. â€Å"Educating America’s New Majority.† http://www.inmotionmagazine.com/er/newmaj1.html Cardiff, Chris. â€Å"Education: What About the Poor?† http://www.fee.org/vnews.php?nid=221 Carey, Kevin. â€Å"State Poverty-Based Education Funding: A Survey of Current Programs and Options for Improvement.† November 7, 2000. Ourfuture.org. â€Å"Bush’s Budget Fails Education.† http://www.ourfuture.org/issues_and_campaigns/education/20040202_edu_budget.cfm. Rebora. Anthony. â€Å"No Child Left Behind.† http://www.edweek.org/context/topics/issuespage.cfm?id=59 May 26, 2004.

Essay example --

Post Impressionism Essays 1. Post impressionism is a term that is used to describe a group of late-19th century and early-20th century artists whose work helped art transition into a new era. These artist defied the naturalism of the Impressionist to explore color, line, and form. This rebellion led to the development of Expressionism. Generally, the approaches were so varied that it is difficult just to focus on one artist and their technique. One of the most prominent Post-Impressionist artists was Vincent Van Gogh. His work is best known for its rough ascetic and bold colors. Van Gogh favored fauvism, which was a movement that implemented vivid expressionistic and non-naturalistic color. Van Gogh’s color was typically saturated and arbitrary. Most of Van Gogh’s paintings show gestural brushwork and examples include: Starry Night and Wheatfield with Cypresses. Also, he often experimented with different perspectives. Another influential post-impressionist artists was George Seurat. Seurat’s main emphasises were surrealism and expressionism. Seurat used Renaissance techniques and styles, creating a hybrid approach to Post-Impressionism. This scientific, more disciplined approach is called Pointillism or Neo-Impressionism. Pointillism is characterized by applying many small dots of pure color so that they become blended to the viewer’s eye. The aim of pointillism is to produce a greater degree of luminosity and brilliance of color. With his new techniques, Seurat generally painted the middle class during their leisure time and his subjects include circus, parks, and harbors. Paul Gauguin was a leading French post impressionist artist whose focus was his imagination. He worked in a studio and experimented with color. His wo... ...rit of the dead, watches over her. Gauguin, in this painting, created a supernatural and fearful aura in this painting. Gauguin experimented with color to arouse deep emotion. Besides the upsetting color, the general composition of the painting is disturbing. The old woman in the background that is watching the girl is eerie. A painting that inspired The Spirit of the Walking Dead was Olympia by Manet. With the completion of Olympia, Manet had set a new precedent for the modern female nude. Also, Manet rejected the standards and challenged people’s morality with his painting. Gauguin's painting challenged society by its form. The most shocking thing about the woman depicted is her age. When this was painted, she was fourteen. Also, the body is disproportionate. An example of this is how her hands are larger than her feet and how her body is awkwardly positioned.

Blond and Person

__Dyed hair       ___wavy hair    ___frizzy hair       ___straight hair    ___fair hair       ___a fringe hair    ___a parting hair    ___a pigair    ___a pory tail ( ) ___a bun ___streaks hair =high light    ___lank hair    ___greasy hair ___dry hair    ___shiny hair ___dandrufy    ___a wig    ___a toupee ___bald       The person I like to talk about is my friend Dina.She is buitiful girl and kind person. She love her family so much. She has got a long hair his colour is blond. She is white. She has buiteful family. She was study hard in her schoole. She is clever person. Her hopes is reading in history. I’d like to be friend for her. I’d love her to much. How are you? I would like speke on skryep my father. He works in a doctor. He shourt and fat and near a wint. He don’t love jop. He live in a marth Matroh. He don’t live in Mahalla. He don’t love crowed. He love me a lot. He hope seen me doctor. I’d like speak about personality very beautifol. He is called Magdi Yakoup. He helps illnes.He is an old man. He is successful. He makes surgery opparation in heats. He gaves children new life. The personal I will describe is my sister. She is beautiful. She has a long hair. She is blond. She is kind and helpful. She is clever in her work. She is a teacher of English. She like drawing. She is ideal for me. I want to be like her. My father is my ideal. He is tall and thin. He has a strong personality. He is fantestic character. He is a teacher. He like watching TV and he like films. He works hard in his school. I like him so much because he kind and clever. The person who I want to describe is my sister.She is blond. She is short and fit. She is kind and different on my sister the second. She has a baby. Ilove her so much. I see her ber week. She is very busy all the week. She is a nurse. She has a big heart. She likes her husband and all the pe ople. She is a lovely person. I’d like to talk about my father. He is handsome. He has fine black hair and white clear skin. He is smart and always successful in his study. He is working now as a teacher in one primary school. He works hard and all the students love him. His favorite hoppy is playing football. He is too kind and thoughtful. I love him too much.I hope that he can live a long time. I wish him a long life. I’d like to speak about my father. He is a teacher. He works at one secondary school in Mahalla. All the students and his colleagues like and respect him as he is hard worker. He is too kind and thoughtful. I love him too much as he treats me gently. He likes fishing and cooking but my mother don’t like him to make anything in the kitchen. She complains from him as he making the kitchen untidy. However, my mother likes him and his cooking so much. Finally he is a funny and lovely person that everyone like to be a friend for him. I describe my mot her. I love my mother.She is kind woman and good in workhouse. She is a teacher of English. Student love her because she love them and she teach English very well. She is a blond face. She love me and other family. She try to keep me and my brothers a good persons. She is cheerful. She is helpful. She helps other people if someone asked her any helping. Her hobbies is reading and watching t. v. about news. She hopes to me to be a doctor and I will try hard to achieve her dream. I love her and I will name my daughter that name like her. I will describe my mother. She is my friend. I love she so much. She is so kind and friendly. She working in her house.But she didn’t complete her education, but she is very clever. She cook well. She keep the house tidy and order. She like to go with her neighbours to the markets, this is her favourite hobby. At last, she is lovely woman. She likes shopping. I describe my mother. She is tall and fit. She got long black hair. She has eyes green . She is great. She is kind woman. She is clever in the workhouse. She is deals good and nice. She like sport and computer games. All people love her. My mather is paitent. Although her life is hard, she is smiling all the time. My mather is blond. She is help a life. She is personality great. She is beautiful.She is ideal. She is tired for her children. She is teacher. She is like exciting adventure. I like my mother. my mom is my reason to live. She looks after me and my brothers. She is housewife. She is quiet tall. She is kind and helpful. She teach me how to communicate with people. She is blond with green eyes. She is a great woman. She teach me how to depend on myself. She is my ideal. I would like to be like she. She is a friendly with me. She said to me if I want to do any thing tell her about it before I do it to tell me that is write or wrong because she would like to see my and my brother good person and all of people love ours.I thinks God to givemy mother like this. I should does it ‘s best to pleased her because she learned me and looking after me. She likes to stay with me and my brothers. My father is a fantastic person. He works as an engineer. Everyone love him. He is nice, well-dressed and tidy. He is very useful person. He has a big knowledge and very intelligent. He helps me in my life and study as he can. He works for a long hours. He is always busy but although he comes with me to the club on Friday. As a whole , I think he is the most wonderful person I ever know. My father is a great person. He works as a teacher. Everyone respect him.He is open mind. He is very useful person. He have information about everything you can imagine. He always help me in my study. He know a lot about our religion El-Islam. He is preacher in mosque. In general, I think he is the most wonderful man in the world. My brother Ibrahim. He is kind and funny. He is work in a company. He is blond. He is short. He is my friend. He is my mirror. He advise me a nd gives opportunity speak. He likes travel, and trips. He likes life. I would like to describe my uncle. He is very kind man. He is tall man, fit. He like plays tennis. He is look smart. His eyes are black and he works in tanta university.He is professor in this university. I like him that he is kindly, helpful, patient and friendly. I proud because he is my uncle. I loved him. My father is a great man. I admire him most. He is tall and fit. He look likes Ahmed Al-saka. He has a black her, a small lips and a wide eyes. He is an ingineer. He is a hard man in his work but he is helpful. He likes his work so much. His favourite hoppy is playing football and watching t. v. news. Really he is a man with all the word meaning. Ever since I first met my admirable friend Noha on a journey for Alexandria several years ago, she has been my favourite, irreplaceable companion.At first glance you can also see her long, blond hair, as well as slender body which make her look really amazing. She h as a beautiful face with blue eyes, small nose and large beautiful mouth. The most characteristic thing about Noha is her sense of humour. She is sociable and often cheers everybody up in different situations. Moreover, she is ambitious and optimistic. She seems quick-tempered but in reality deep down, she is really an amiable person. In her spare time, she goes either to the mosque or the club with her elder sister. To sum up, Noha really deserves admiration due to her good ualities. She shows people how to be a better person. I hope our friendship will never end. Ahmed is my old brother and my best friend as well. He looks likes Rogdy Abaza. He is handsome, well-built and robust. He has black fair hair, black eyes like coal and light skin. Moreover, He has a good appearance as he is stylish and well-dressed. He is a kind and ambition. He is very religious and his only hoppy is reading Koran. He is a student in Science University. He likes the study of science so much. He studies h ard and hopes to be like Ahmed Zeweil. He always helps me to overcome any problems face me.He keeps my secrets. I really respect and love him. My mother is the most important person in my life. She really deserves to be talked about all the time. She is somewhat short but beautiful and good-looking. She is a teacher in my secondary school. She works hard and all student s love and respect her. She always helps me in my study. She want me to be a doctor. She gives me advices to be the best girl in the world. She is intelligent, clever and open mind and funny that my father feels that she is his heart. She is kind . She helps the poor people. Really I like her so much and can’t live without her.I’d like to tell you about my mother. This is a person who admire it most. She is quite tall. She has long hair. She is a teacher. She is very beautiful. She is generous and kind woman. She helps other people. She is cheerful. I like it very much. Now, She is very ill, I hope her a speed recovery. She works in El-Mahalla Secondary school. She goes everyday except Friday. On Friday, we go to our farm. It is very big. We go there and have lunch. After that we play together. Finally , I ‘d like to be like she. My mother’s sister or my aunt is the person who I want to talk about most.She suffered a lot, but never asked for help as she think that asking for help is symbol of weakness. She always have a smiled face. My aunt lives in Abu-Ali in Gharbia. She is my idol. She has good characteristics. She is impetuous, kind, clever, generous, She always wears awide black dress with a black veil. She is religious too. She always tell us religious stories. Finally I can said that she is a pretty woman. I will describe my grandma. She has the perfect words that I need for my progress. She has a beautiful smile. Some people says I look like her when she was teenager. I think it is true and I am happy for that.My grandma has many talents. She can cook very fas t. She is good storyteller. I admire her because she is very intelligent, and she had many goals in her life. My mother goes to her work and leave me and my brother and sister with her. She takes care of us because she loves us like I and my brother and sister love her. She was an Arabic teacher but now retired. So I wanted to be a teacher like her, with small difference, I’m English Teacher. She was working hard every day and untile now she likes to learn something new every day. She always can advise me, when I am making a decision. I think it is the best person on Earth.